library(dplyr) library(tibble) library(DMwR2) # Book package, data mining with R, Torgo library(Hmisc) library(ggplot2) # The plotting library
2024-03-25
Packages used in these slides
Seed used in these slides
set.seed(1024)
Modelling
From Wikipedia:
Scientific modelling is a scientific activity, the aim of which is to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand, define, quantify, visualize, or simulate by referencing it to existing and usually commonly accepted knowledge.
It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then using different types of models for different aims, such as conceptual models to better understand, operational models to operationalize, mathematical models to quantify, and graphical models to visualize the subject.
Modelling
Data Mining Tasks:
- exploratory data analysis
- dependency modeling
- clustering
- anomaly detection
- predictive analytics
Exploratory Data Analysis
Exploratory Data Analysis
Main goal of EDA is to provide useful summaries of the data
- Textual summaries
- Visual summaries
Answer questions like:
- What is the most common value of a variable?
- Do the values of a variable vary a lot?
- Are there strange / unexpected values in the dataset?
Most “common” value
numeric
- mean
\(\bar{x} = \frac{1}{n}\sum^n_{i=1}{x_i}\)
\(\bar{x}\) is an estimate of the population mean \(\mu\).
- median
\(\tilde{x}\) is the item in the middle in a sorted list
Which one is more expensive to compute?
Mean vs Median
Median is less sensitive (more robust) to outlying values
x <- rnorm(1000) mean(x)
## [1] 0.01229438
median(x)
## [1] 0.05130896
x[1] <- 1000 mean(x)
## [1] 1.013073
median(x)
## [1] 0.05549485
Mean vs Median
Be careful with NAs
x <- rnorm(100) x[1] <- NA mean(x)
## [1] NA
median(x)
## [1] NA
mean(x, na.rm = T)
## [1] -0.08823183
median(x, na.rm = T)
## [1] -0.1124146
Mode
Most “common” value
- nominal
- mode
- which value to choose?
cord?
- mode
x <- sample(letters[1:5], 999, replace = T,
prob = c(0.1,0.2,0.3,0.3,0.1))
foo_mode <- function (vec) {
return (names(which.max(table(vec))))
}
table(x)
## x ## a b c d e ## 90 198 312 312 87
foo_mode(x)
## [1] "c"
Summarise
data(algae, package="DMwR2") t_alg <- as_tibble(algae) print(t_alg, width = 70, n = 6)
## # A tibble: 200 × 18 ## season size speed mxPH mnO2 Cl NO3 NH4 oPO4 PO4 Chla ## <fct> <fct> <fct> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> ## 1 winter small medium 8 9.8 60.8 6.24 578 105 170 50 ## 2 spring small medium 8.35 8 57.8 1.29 370 429. 559. 1.3 ## 3 autumn small medium 8.1 11.4 40.0 5.33 347. 126. 187. 15.6 ## 4 spring small medium 8.07 4.8 77.4 2.30 98.2 61.2 139. 1.4 ## 5 autumn small medium 8.06 9 55.4 10.4 234. 58.2 97.6 10.5 ## 6 winter small high 8.25 13.1 65.8 9.25 430 18.2 56.7 28.4 ## # ℹ 194 more rows ## # ℹ 7 more variables: a1 <dbl>, a2 <dbl>, a3 <dbl>, a4 <dbl>, ## # a5 <dbl>, a6 <dbl>, a7 <dbl>
t_alg %>% summarise(avgNO3 = mean(NO3, na.rm = T),
medA1 = median(a1, na.rm = T))
## # A tibble: 1 × 2 ## avgNO3 medA1 ## <dbl> <dbl> ## 1 3.28 6.95
Summarise
- Use
summarise_allto obtain summaries for all variables
t_alg %>%
select(mxPH:Cl) %>%
summarise_all(list(~mean(., na.rm = T),
~median(., na.rm = T)))
## # A tibble: 1 × 6 ## mxPH_mean mnO2_mean Cl_mean mxPH_median mnO2_median Cl_median ## <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> ## 1 8.01 9.12 43.6 8.06 9.8 32.7
Summarise
- Use
group_byto group data into clusters of similar observations and obtain summaries of clusters.
t_alg %>% group_by(season, size) %>% summarise(nObs = n(), medA7 = median(a7)) %>% ungroup() %>% arrange(desc(medA7))
## `summarise()` has grouped output by 'season'. You can override using the ## `.groups` argument.
## # A tibble: 12 × 4 ## season size nObs medA7 ## <fct> <fct> <int> <dbl> ## 1 spring large 12 1.95 ## 2 summer small 14 1.45 ## 3 winter medium 26 1.4 ## 4 autumn medium 16 1.05 ## 5 spring medium 21 1 ## 6 summer medium 21 1 ## 7 autumn large 11 0 ## 8 autumn small 13 0 ## 9 spring small 20 0 ## 10 summer large 10 0 ## 11 winter large 12 0 ## 12 winter small 24 0
Variance
- Variance is a measure of the spread of the variable
\[ s_x^2 = \frac{1}{n-1} \sum^n_{i=1}{(x_i-\bar{x})^2} \]
\(s_x^2\) is an estimate of the population variance \(\sigma_x^2\).
\(\sigma_x\) is the standart deviation of the population.
- A more robust metric is IQR: inter-quartile range
- IQR is the difference between 1st and 3rd quartiles.
- IQR covers the most common 50% of the distribution.
Variance
- Spread Metric Functions
sd: standart deviationvar: varianceIQR: Interquartile rangerange: difference between max and min
Variance
sdandIQRare similar in scale
t_alg %>% select(a1:a3) %>% summarise_all(list(sd = sd, IQR = IQR))
## # A tibble: 1 × 6 ## a1_sd a2_sd a3_sd a1_IQR a2_IQR a3_IQR ## <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> ## 1 21.3 11.0 6.95 23.3 11.4 4.93
Unknown Variables
- Unknown variables values are a major problem
- We have to understand how much NAs we have
- … and where
data(algae, package="DMwR2") t_alg <- as_tibble(algae) sum(is.na(t_alg))
## [1] 33
nrow(t_alg)
## [1] 200
sum(complete.cases(t_alg))
## [1] 184
t_alg_comp <- t_alg[complete.cases(t_alg),] sum(is.na(t_alg_comp))
## [1] 0
Unknown Variables
- Check columns that contain NAs
# Number of NAs in each column na_col <- apply(t_alg, 2, function (col) sum(is.na(col))) na_col[na_col != 0]
## mxPH mnO2 Cl NO3 NH4 oPO4 PO4 Chla ## 1 2 10 2 2 2 2 12
na_col[na_col == 0]
## season size speed a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 ## 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Outliers
“An observation which deviates so much from other observations as to arouse suspicions that it was generated by a different mechanism.”, Hawkins (1980)
- How to detect? Boxplot rule is one way to do it: \[ IQR = Q_3 - Q_1 \] \[ V_l = Q_1 - 1.5 \times IQR \] \[ V_r = Q_3 + 1.5 \times IQR \] \[ V = [V_l, V_r] \]
- …then, everything outside of V is an outlier
Outliers
foo_outliers <- function(x)
{
Q1 <- quantile(x, 0.25)
Q3 <- quantile(x, 0.75)
IQR <- Q3 - Q1
Vl <- Q1 - 1.5 * IQR
Vr <- Q3 + 1.5 * IQR
return (which(x < Vl | x > Vr))
}
x <- rnorm(1000)
outliers <- foo_outliers(x)
x[outliers]
## [1] 2.713597 -2.793030 -3.336088 -3.552366 2.971351
x <- x[-outliers]
Outliers
- Detection of outliers is a very case sensitive topic
- Multi-modal distributions
- Multi-variate outliers
- Categorical outliers
- Contextual outliers
wage <- c(0, 100, 120, 110, 0, 150, 120, 120, 130, 160, 150, 0, 130) mean(wage)
## [1] 99.23077
foo_outliers(wage)
## [1] 1 5 12
wage <- wage[-foo_outliers(wage)]
cat("Average income in this country is", mean(wage))
## Average income in this country is 129
- WRONG!!!
Summary
data(iris) summary(iris)
## Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width ## Min. :4.300 Min. :2.000 Min. :1.000 Min. :0.100 ## 1st Qu.:5.100 1st Qu.:2.800 1st Qu.:1.600 1st Qu.:0.300 ## Median :5.800 Median :3.000 Median :4.350 Median :1.300 ## Mean :5.843 Mean :3.057 Mean :3.758 Mean :1.199 ## 3rd Qu.:6.400 3rd Qu.:3.300 3rd Qu.:5.100 3rd Qu.:1.800 ## Max. :7.900 Max. :4.400 Max. :6.900 Max. :2.500 ## Species ## setosa :50 ## versicolor:50 ## virginica :50 ## ## ##
Summary
describe(iris[,1:2]) # from package Hmisc
## iris[, 1:2] ## ## 2 Variables 150 Observations ## -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ## Sepal.Length ## n missing distinct Info Mean Gmd .05 .10 ## 150 0 35 0.998 5.843 0.9462 4.600 4.800 ## .25 .50 .75 .90 .95 ## 5.100 5.800 6.400 6.900 7.255 ## ## lowest : 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7, highest: 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.7 7.9 ## -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ## Sepal.Width ## n missing distinct Info Mean Gmd .05 .10 ## 150 0 23 0.992 3.057 0.4872 2.345 2.500 ## .25 .50 .75 .90 .95 ## 2.800 3.000 3.300 3.610 3.800 ## ## lowest : 2 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5, highest: 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.4 ## --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Summary
If you want to compute summaries grouped by a specific variable’s values,
by(algae[,c("season", "speed", "mxPH")], algae$size, summary)
## algae$size: large ## season speed mxPH ## autumn:11 high : 7 Min. :7.300 ## spring:12 low :17 1st Qu.:8.200 ## summer:10 medium:21 Median :8.400 ## winter:12 Mean :8.396 ## 3rd Qu.:8.600 ## Max. :9.500 ## ------------------------------------------------------------ ## algae$size: medium ## season speed mxPH ## autumn:16 high :34 Min. :7.300 ## spring:21 low :15 1st Qu.:7.800 ## summer:21 medium:35 Median :8.100 ## winter:26 Mean :8.101 ## 3rd Qu.:8.408 ## Max. :9.700 ## ------------------------------------------------------------ ## algae$size: small ## season speed mxPH ## autumn:13 high :43 Min. :5.600 ## spring:20 low : 1 1st Qu.:7.410 ## summer:14 medium:27 Median :7.795 ## winter:24 Mean :7.657 ## 3rd Qu.:8.068 ## Max. :8.700 ## NA's :1
Visualization
- Visualization is a very important component of understanding your data
- R excels at data visualization
- standart graphics -> standart plotting functions
- grid graphics -> ggplot2
Visualization - Categorical
data(algae, package="DMwR2")
freqOcc <- table(algae$season)
barplot(freqOcc,
main = "Frequency of the Seasons")
ggplot(algae, aes(x = season)) +
geom_bar() +
ggtitle("Frequency of the Seasons")
Visualization - Numerical
hist(iris$Petal.Length, xlab = "Petal Length")
ggplot(iris, aes(x = Petal.Length)) +
geom_histogram() +
xlab("Petal Length")
Visualization - Numerical
boxplot(iris$Sepal.Width,
xlab = "Sepal Width")
ggplot(iris, aes(y = Sepal.Width)) +
geom_boxplot() +
xlab("") + ylab("Sepal Width")
Visualization - Conditioning
boxplot(Sepal.Width ~ Species,
iris,
xlab = "Sepal Width")
ggplot(iris, aes(x = Species,
y = Sepal.Width)) +
geom_boxplot() +
xlab("Species") +
ylab("Sepal Width")
Visualization - Facets
ggplot(algae, aes(x = a1)) +
geom_histogram(binwidth = 10) +
facet_grid(size ~ speed)
Visualization - Two Variables
plot(Sepal.Width ~ Sepal.Length, iris)
ggplot(iris, aes(x = Sepal.Length,
y = Sepal.Width)) +
geom_point()
Visualization - Two Variables
plot(Sepal.Width ~ Sepal.Length, iris, col = Species)
ggplot(iris, aes(x = Sepal.Length,
y = Sepal.Width,
color = Species)) +
geom_point()
Visualization - Two Variables
ggplot(iris, aes(x = Sepal.Length,
y = Sepal.Width)) +
geom_point() +
facet_wrap( ~ Species)
